The Mongols
Who were the Mongols?
The Mongols were nomads from the grasslands north of China. They were herders as the grasslands were unsuitable to crops. They lived off their goats, sheep, yaks and horses. They migrated every year between the summer pastures in the north and the winter, to the open pastures in the south. They also traded with neighbouring countries and raided the wealthy regions to the south in China.
Mongol society
Until Genghis Khan was born in 1162, the Mongols lived in small tribal groups, or clans. A chief or Khan ruled the group and kept his position by showing strength and making good choices. If he failed in any way, he was open to challenge from other members of the clan. Women had influence and considerable freedom, they managed the camps and basic trade. Men were allowed as many wives as they could afford. Women lived separately in their own yurts (tents).
To do: Questions
Use a map to show where the Mongols originated.
Describe the Mongol lifestyle. Eating, drinking, housing and fun.
How did the Mongols make a living? Trade? War? Farming?
Background briefing: The Mongols
Brigands
As early as 400 BCE the Chinese governments were building walls in an attempt to defend China from Mongol raiders and brigands. Chinese civilisation was concentrated in cities and agricultural areas (River valleys). For the nomadic Mongols they were tempting targets. The Chinese viewed the Mongols as barbarians without culture. The Great Wall of China is actually a series of interconnected walls built by various Chinese kingdoms to protect themselves from the Mongol raids.
The Mongol expansion
After Genghis Khan united the tribes of the Mongols under his leadership in 1206 he began a remarkable expansion and created the Mongol Empire. At its peak 100 years later, the Mongol empire stretched from the Pacific Ocean to Eastern Europe, an area of 30 000 000 sq / km.
To do: Questions
How did the Chinese governments respond to the threat of the Mongols? Include a map of the great wall of China.
How did the Chinese kingdoms view the Mongols and how did the Mongols view the Chinese kingdoms?
Use a map to describe the extent of the Mongol empire
1. How to unite the Mongol tribes
Before Genghis, the nomadic Mongols were divided into many warring tribes. Genghis Khan united the Mongol tribes into a single group, in 1206 - the year of the Leopard - he was elected as the Khan or universal ruler. In the Secret History of the Mongols (1228) his shaman (priest) describes what life was like:
'Before you were born [1162] . . . everyone was feuding. Rather than sleep they robbed each other of their possessions. . . The whole nation was in rebellion. Rather than rest they fought each other. In such a world one did not live as one wished, but rather in constant conflict. There was no rest, only battle. There was no affection, only mutual slaughter
(Secret History of the Mongols, sec. 254)
Genghis united the tribes using the following methods.
Tie of marriage (quda). Mongol tribes were tied by intermarriage, daughters were married off to other tribes to form family bonds. The Great Khan even married his own daughters to previous enemies.
Tie of brotherhood (anda). The great Khan exchanged valuable gifts with other warriors. These ties were considered stronger than family ties.
Tie of friendship (nokor). Men would swear loyalty to their leader and promise to follow him everywhere.
Tie of plunder. As the Mongols began to conquer new territories they had new wealth to share with their supporters.
To do: Uniting the tribes
Use examples from the four methods described to explain why the methods that Genghis used to unite the Mongol tribes were so effective.
2. How to organise an unbeatable army
Genghis Khan recruited warriors from across the steppe, breaking traditional tribal loyalties and promoting soldiers based on merit and loyalty. He organised his army using a decimal system (units of 10, 100, 1000), ensuring discipline, flexibility, and strong command, which made Mongol forces highly effective and coordinated in battle.
Mr Khan organised an army with advantages.
All males 15-70 served in the army, all as cavalry. The army’s 95 units of 10,000 soldiers were subdivided into units of 1,000, 100, and 10.
Every soldier was a member of an Arban, these groups consisted of 10 men who did everything together. The men were intensely loyal to one another and their Arban.
Fast horses that could travel large distances in a short time. Each soldier had five horses to ride.
Sturdy soldiers who could live in the saddle for days.
Bows to shoot arrows direct from the saddle
Shields and armour that were made of leather, making them light and easy to travel large distances.
Absolute obedience to orders from superiors was enforced.
No one in the army was paid, though all shared to varying degrees in the booty
To do: Imagine you are a Chinese traveller in Mongolia.
You have seen that Mr Khan is creating a strong army and you would like to warn the Chinese rulers.
Write a letter that explains why Genghis Khans calvary has become an unbeatable force.
“Not even a mighty warrior can break a frail arrow when it is multiplied and supported by its fellows. As long as your brothers support one another , your enemies can never gain the victory over you ”
3. How to conquer everybody with your fast moving armies…….
The well organised Mongol army expanded rapidly. As well as being fast and ferocious, Mr Khan was an innovative leader who learned new techniques from the people he conquered to ensure victory.
Gathering intelligence had high priority. Scouts were sent out, local knowledge sought, and traveling merchants rewarded for information. The Mongols were developing extensive communication networks that allowed them to use this intelligence to support their military campaigns, making this information invaluable.
Mr Khan understood that the Mongols were very good at warfare on horseback. His genius was to realise that foreign experts and advisors could be used for areas of war that they had limited experience. Notably Chinese and Persian engineers skilled at making and using siege weapons such as catapults and battering rams.
To do: How to organise an unbeatable army
Use a map to show how fast the army moved to conquer neighbouring kingdoms. (search: Mongol campaigns map)
How could extensive intelligence gathering aid the Mongol war plans?
Why would siege warfare be important for a rapidly expanding empire like the Mongols.
4. …..And govern your rapidly expanding empire .
At its peak 100 years later, the Mongol empire stretched from the Pacific Ocean to Eastern Europe, an area of 30 000 000 sq / km. The Mongols governed their vast empire by combining strong leadership with practical flexibility. Conquered peoples were allowed to keep their culture. The Mongols allowed local customs, religions, and leaders to continue. They focused on security, communication, and trade, which helped maintain stability and generate wealth across their empire.
Mongol governance in five points.
The Mongols allowed local rule. They left local leaders in place and this reduced resistance and made governing easier.
They practised religious tolerance. The Mongols allowed people to follow their own religions. This reduced rebellion and helped unify the empire, encouraging trade and cooperation.
They created strong communication systems. The Yam system (relay stations) allowed fast communication. Messages and officials could travel quickly across the empire. This helped maintain control over long distances.
The Mongols promoted trade and made trade routes safer, so trade increased, making the empire wealthier. This period became known as the Pax Mongolica (Mongol Peace).
They used a very efficient tax collecting system. The Mongols collected taxes rather than destroying regions, using this wealth to help maintain armies and control.
To do: Mongol Governance Instructions for a new Governor.
Mr Khan has instructed you to send a letter to the leader of a newly conquered kingdom explaining the Mongol rules for governing provinces in their empire.
Ideas to include in your letter.
Use examples to explain how the Mongols managed their rapidly expanding empire?
What were the benefits of promoting religious tolerance?
What were the benefits of promoting trade and safety?
Use a map to explain the extent of Mongol trade networks (Search. Mongol trade network map).
Mongol fun facts. The Yam network.
In military communications, the Mongols used well-coordinated and efficient transport and signalling that gave them an edge. They signalled by shooting whistling arrows tuned to make different sounds, waving flags (a forerunner of the semaphore), burning torches, and dispatching fast riding couriers. The army set up and maintained networks of staging posts where riders could rest and exchange horses
“Under the reign of Chinggis Khan, all the countries . . . enjoyed such peace that a man might have journeyed from the land of the sunrise to the land of sunset with a golden platter upon his head without suffering the least violence from anyone. ”
Extra source: The new Silk Road. History on the net
To facilitate trade, Genghis offered protection for merchants who began to come from east and west. He also offered a higher status for merchants than that allowed by the Chinese or Persians who despised trade and traders. During the period of the Mongol Empire, merchants found protection, status, tax exemption, loans and consistent aid from the Khans. For the 100 years of the height of the Empire, the East-West Mongol trade routes became the fabled Silk Road which for the first time linked Europe to Asia, allowing the free flow of ideas, technologies and goods.
Source questions
Who produced this source?
Is the source primary or secondary?
Use evidence from the source to describe how the Mongol's supported trade networks and the benefits they gained form this support.
“Conquering the world on horseback is easy; it is dismounting and governing that is hard. ”
5. Mongol Sources
Sources Analysis Answer Guide
Hints and tips for a successful source analysis:
Quote often and begin your response with name of the author, not the Source number. Put the source number in brackets at the end of the quote/paraphrasing.
EG: ‘Lamb shows two examples of the importance of religion in Ancient Greece. ....' (Source 1)
Always use full sentences and include the question in your answer
Use the mark scheme to guide your answer.
Two marks means you need to make two clear points.
Three marks means you need to make three clear points.
For example:
This is supported by Jones who states that 'History students would be more popular at parties if they used this method.' (Source 3)
The Mongols left relatively few written records of their own, especially in the early empire, as they relied on oral traditions. Much of what we know about the Mongols comes from the people they conquered, whose accounts often emphasise destruction, fear and brutality. These sources can be biased, as they reflect the experiences and perspectives of defeated societies rather than the Mongols themselves.
Source 1. The Complete History of the Mongols (1220). Ali Ibn al-Athir
Ali Ibn al-Athir was an Arab Kurdish historian from modern day Eastern Turkey whose work describes the Mongol takeover of Muslim lands.
‘For some years I have resisted describing this event, deeming it so horrible that I shrank from recording it. . . . . This thing involves the description of the greatest catastrophe . . . which befell all men generally, and the Muslims in particular. . .For even the devil will spare those who follow him, though he destroy those who oppose him, but these Mongols spared none, slaying women and men and children and killing unborn babe.’
Questions
When was the source produced?
What was the motivation of the author of the source?
Use evidence from the source to describe the impact of the Mongol invasion of the Islamic world.
Is the information in the source factual or an opinion?
Source 2. The Mongol siege of Baghdad C1300. ThoughtCo. 2025
‘Baghdad held out for twelve days, but it could not withstand the Mongols. Once the city's walls fell, the hordes rushed in and collected mountains of silver, gold, and jewels. Hundreds of thousands of Baghdadis died. Books from the Bayt al-Hikmah, or House of Wisdom, were thrown into the Tigris River, supposedly, so many that a horse could have walked across the river on them.’
Questions
Use evidence from the source to show how the Mongols acted in victory?
Source 3. The new Silk Road. History on the net. 2024
‘To facilitate trade, Genghis offered protection for merchants who began to come from east and west. He also offered a higher status for merchants than that allowed by the Chinese or Persians who despised trade and traders. During the period of the Mongol Empire, merchants found protection, status, tax exemption, loans and consistent aid from the Khans. For the 100 years of the height of the Empire, the Mongol trade routes were again the fabled Silk Road, linking Europe to Asia, allowing the free flow of ideas, technologies and goods.
Questions
Is the source primary or secondary?
Use evidence from the source to describe how the Mongol's supported traders and trade networks.
Epilogue: Mongols. The good and the bad.
The Mongols have a fearsome reputation for carnage and chaos, but there were benefits to their reign.
The migration and trade that was possible under the Mongol system meant that there was frequent and widespread contact between peoples of widely different cultural, ethnic, religious, and language backgrounds. This resulted in the exchange of goods, ideas and new technologies.
Thousands of people travelled from western and central parts of Eurasia to serve the Mongol regime in China. Marco Polo, the Venetian merchant who travelled to China with his father and uncle in 1271 and remained there for seventeen years, was just one of these foreigners seeking opportunity in Mongol administration.
Epilogue to do:
Describe the pros and cons of the Mongol expansion.