Vietnam 1966 - 1980
1. The American War
Paragraphs
We are going to write a paragraph about the war in five events.
How to write a beautiful paragraph
Topic sentence: Start with a clear and precise topic sentence that refers directly to the content of the paragraph. The topic sentence tells the reader what the paragraph is about, or its main idea
Explain: Explain what you mean in greater detail.
Evidence: Provide evidence to support your idea or claim. To do this, refer to your research. This may include: case studies, statistics, documentary evidence, academic books or journal articles.
Link: Summarise the main idea of the paragraph, and make clear how this paragraph supports your overall argument. The Second Indo China War in 6 Events
Was America’s war in Vietnam a noble struggle against Communist aggression, a tragic intervention in a civil conflict, or an attempt to crush a movement of national liberation?
Paragraph 1. The American War
Was America’s war in Vietnam a noble struggle against Communist aggression, a tragic intervention in a civil conflict, or an attempt to crush a movement of national liberation?
America’s leaders insisted that military force was necessary to defend a sovereign nation — South Vietnam — from external Communist aggression. According to President Lyndon B. Johnson in 1965, “The first reality is that North Vietnam has attacked the independent nation of South Vietnam. Its object is total conquest.”
He warned that the Communists in Vietnam were supported and guided by the Soviet Union and China. Therefore, the war in South Vietnam was not an isolated, local conflict, it was part of America's highest priority — the Cold War struggle to contain Communism around the globe.
Policymakers warned that if South Vietnam fell to Communism, neighbouring countries would inevitably fall in turn, one after another, like a row of dominoes.
Paragraph 2: The Gulf of Tonkin incident.
Early 1964, South Vietnam began conducting U.S.-backed commando attacks and intelligence-gathering missions along the North Vietnamese coast.
Success was limited so the US shifted the operation's tactics from commando attacks on land to shore bombardments using mortars, rockets, and rifles fired from South Vietnamese patrol boats. In response, North Vietnamese patrol torpedo boats attacked the USS Maddox in international waters in the Gulf of Tonkin.
Two days later, the US claimed that the Maddox had been attacked again. After the second attack, the U.S. Congress passed a resolution almost unanimously allowing the federal government to “take all necessary measures” to protect U.S. forces in Vietnam.
In 2005, declassified NSA documents showed that there was no second attack. U.S. officials had lied. This lie started a war that would claim 58,220 American and more than 3 million Vietnamese lives
‘The overwhelming body of reports, if used, would have told the story that no attack occurred."
Paragraph 3: The Tet offensive
Late January 1968, beginning on the most sacred of Vietnamese holidays, communist forces launched a sweeping assault across South Vietnam. The offensive shook the American military command and more importantly, the American home front.
Over 80,000 Vietcong troops emerged, seemingly from nowhere, to attack major metropolitan areas across South Vietnam. Surprise strikes were made at the American base at Danang and the American embassy in Saigon.
During the weeks that followed, the South Vietnamese army and U.S. ground forces recaptured all of the lost territory, inflicting twice as many casualties on the Vietcong.
However, the media images changed the view of the American public. Government statements about the war being nearly over were clearly false. After three years of intense bombing, billions of dollars and 500,000 troops, the VC proved themselves capable of attacking anywhere they chose. The message was simple, this war was not almost over.
“We have been too often disappointed by the optimism of the American leaders, both in Vietnam and Washington, to have faith any longer in the silver linings they find in the darkest clouds… For it seems now more certain than ever that the bloody experience of Vietnam is to end in stalemate.”
Walter Cronkite, American news anchor, February 1968
Paragraph 4. The My Lai Massacre. 1968
The My Lai massacre was the mass murder of 506 unarmed civilians by American troops.
First hand account:
Pham Thi Thuan had just woken up and was cooking potatoes when the Americans landed nearby and began killing her neighbours. The US soldiers had enter the area to kill local fighters. Military intelligence had determined that the villagers were harbouring Vietcong, although Thuan denied this was the case.
“They first killed the people at the rice paddies, as well as the cattle,” said Thuan, an 80-year-old rice farmer from Son My village.
“We just worked for ourselves,” she said. Only a handful of weapons were captured, and the only American casualty that day was a soldier who deliberately shot himself in the foot.
American soldiers treated all the villagers, including women and children, as hostile. One of them, Private Paul Meadlo, recounted what he had done in a 1969 interview for CBS News.
“You just spray the area on them and so you can’t know how many you killed ’cause they were going fast. So I might have killed 10 or 15 of them,” he told interviewer Mike Wallace.
“Men, women, and children?” asked Wallace.
“Men, women, and children,” he replied.
“And babies?”
“And babies.”
Paragraph 5: The Ho Chi Minh trail.
The Ho Chi Minh was not one trail but a series of trails. The trail was used by the Viet Minh as a route for its troops and supplies (Food, weapons and equipment) to get into the South.
The trail ran along the Laos/Cambodia and Vietnam borders and was dominated by jungles. In total, the ‘trail’ was about 1,000 kilometres long.
The ‘trail’ also included dummy routes that served the only purpose of confusing the Americans. In places it was 80 kilometres wide. It is thought that up to 40,000 people were used to keep the route open.
The natural environment gave the trail excellent cover as the jungle could provide as much as three canopies of tree cover, which disguised what was going on at ground level.
The American response to this was extensive bombing and the use of defoliants – the most famous being Agent Orange - to kill vegetation that gave cover to those using the trail. Large areas of jungle were effectively killed off, but the trail remained in operation and was used for the duration of the war.
2. Bombing Cambodia and Laos
The secret bombing of Cambodia. 1965 - 73
The Ho Chi Minh Trail was a vast network of jungle paths and roads running from North Vietnam through Laos and Cambodia to South Vietnam. It was a crucial supply route for North Vietnamese forces, allowing them to transport troops, weapons, and supplies In response the US began Operation Menu. A massive bombing campaign in Cambodia and Laos.
Between 1965 and 1973, the American air force dropped 2 756 941 tonnes of bombs on Cambodia at 113, 716 sites. To put this in perspective, the Allies dropped 2 million tonnes in all of WW2, including Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Cambodia may be the most bombed country in history.
The Americans were trying to prevent the Vietnamese supplying the insurgency in South Vietnam from the Ho Chi Minh trail. The scale of the bombing is linked to the rise of the Khmer Rouge who had limited support before the war.
Sites bombed by US in Cambodia 1965 - 73
To do: Annotate a satellite image/map of the US bombing campaign in Cambodia
What were the strategic objectives of the bombing campaign in Laos and Cambodia?
How did this campaign contribute to the rise of the Khmer Rouge and the fall of the Lao monarchy?
What were the reasons the US government kept the bombing campaign secret?
Sources - The American War
Source 1. Message From the President of the United States to the King of Cambodia, October 2, 1954
YOUR MAJESTY: The people of the United States have watched with concern and admiration the struggle of Cambodia against unwarranted Communist aggression. The United States is happy that Cambodia has reaffirmed its independence and that your Kingdom is in a position now to undertake a course which will secure that sovereign freedom for which your people fought.
At this time when Cambodia has so convincingly demonstrated its independence and its stern determination to maintain that independence, I desire Your Majesty to know that my Government will be pleased to consider ways in which our two countries can more effectively cooperate in the joint task of stemming the threats facing your territories and maintaining peace and prosperity in your Kingdom.
With assurances of my personal esteem and high regard,
Source 2. General Bruce Palmer Jnr served in the United States Army in Vietnam
So the rub was bringing the enemy forces to battle, for they had no definite, recognisable or overt positions. They remained either ‘underground’ (often literally) within South Vietnamese borders, or back in base sanctuaries in Cambodia or Laos, going on the attack only when they so decided, seeking to surprise a preselected victim. Thus the enemy clearly had the initiative; and, given the way the United States had decided to fight the war in a passive defence of South Vietnam, American forces found themselves in the unenviable situation of having to react and dance to the enemy’s tune.
Source 1: Questions
What is the value of Source 1. for an historian studying American government policy in Asia between 1950 and 1975? Refer to both the content of the source and its origin in your answer
How does the President's letter in 1954 support and contradict the secret Bombing of Cambodia.
Source 2. Questions.
What is the value of Source 2 for an historian studying the tactics of the Viet Cong in the Vietnam War?
Use evidence from Source 2 and your broader knowledge to describe Viet Cong tactics in the Vietnam War.
3. Strategy (Task 3)
The Americans and the North Vietnamese used very different strategies and tactics in the conflict.
1. Strategy analysis
Compare and contrast the strategy of the two sides
2. Tactic analysis
Describe the tactics of the two sides
Clearly describe each tactic using sources / quotes to elaborate
Use examples to support your analysis. EG What does Rolling Thunder look like on the ground?
Evaluate the effectiveness of the tactic. EG How effective was search and destroy at ‘bringing the them to battle’.
3. Impacts case studies
Describe the impacts of a US tactic using an example.
Describe the impacts of a NVA tactic using an example.
Strategy analysis - a four step fail safe plan
Topic: Begin EACH tactic analysis with a clear and precise topic sentence that clearly describes the tactic.
Explain: Explain what you mean in greater detail.
Evidence: Provide evidence to support your idea or claim. To do this, refer to your research. This may include: case studies, statistics, documentary evidence, academic books or journal articles. Remember that all evidence will require appropriate citation.
Evaluate: How effective was the tactic?
Part 1. The US
Include quotes and examples to support each of your points
The American strategy
Westmoreland's (US Commander) strategy was to wage a war of attrition, a long series of small-scale attacks gradually wears down the enemy. The goal was to inflict heavy damage on North Vietnam and the Viet Cong, to make it impossible for them to recover and keep fighting. To achieve this, the US carried out bombings in North Vietnam and Cambodia.
The ground strategy in South Vietnam was similar, devastate the Viet Cong and pro-communist forces. Key elements of the ground war included search and destroy missions. Local intelligence was used to identify VC and pro-communist strongholds, then eliminate them with firepower. From 1966 to 1967, the United States poured troops into Vietnam, over 485,000 by the end of 1967, a clear sign that Westmoreland's ground war was struggling.
Operation Rolling Thunder
The Vietnam War featured the most intense bombing campaign in military history and had massive human costs. General Westmoreland believed that the regular forces of the Viet Cong and the NVA would continue to suffer enormous casualties at the hands of massive U.S. firepower. Eventually, went the argument, the communists would reach the point where they would no longer be able to replace their losses on the battlefield. Having been ground down on the battlefield, they would presumably agree to a favourable peace settlement.
'So the challenge was bringing the enemy forces to battle, for they had no definite, recognisable or overt positions. They remained either ‘underground’ (often literally) within South Vietnamese borders, or back in base sanctuaries in Cambodia or Laos, going on the attack only when they so decided, seeking to surprise a preselected victim. Thus the enemy clearly had the initiative; and, given the way the United States had decided to fight the war in a passive defence of South Vietnam, American forces found themselves in the unenviable situation of having to react and dance to the enemy’s tune'.
General Bruce Palmer Jnr
Operation Rolling Thunder
Part 2. North Vietnam
Include quotes and examples to support each of your points
The Viet Cong strategy
In 1965, Ho Chi Minh and the North Vietnamese leadership ordered a change in a way the war in the South was to be fought. From now on, the Vietcong would avoid pitched battles with the Americans unless the odds were clearly in their favour. There would be more hit and run attacks and ambushes.
The Vietcong, also developed extensive tunnel systems that were training grounds, logistics centres and headquarters. They also offered secure sanctuaries for times when the war might go badly. The tunnels were fighting bases capable of providing continuous support for troops. Even if a village was in enemy hands, the NLF in the tunnels were still able to conduct offensive operations.
Giap's Guerrilla tactics
General Giap (Chief North Vietnamese strategist) was the master of doing the unexpected. He played on the Western powers' belief that firepower alone determined victory. Their overconfidence and hubris was their downfall.
Win over the peasantry, avoid damage to the land, crops, houses. Help them in work
Night attacks and booby traps made with bamboo sticks, called punji sticks, and filled with faeces to ensure infection, increasing the chances of death.
Write reports and publish after firefights to improve performance.
Use specially trained sappers to attack enemy defensive positions by placing demolition charges, using hand grenades and RPG's to disrupt enemy positions.
Attacks were swift and unexpected, they were able to damage key American bases and the American’s morale.
Secret supply lines and paths, based on ancient footpaths through the jungles on the borders between Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia, known to Americans as the Ho Chi Minh Trail.
“The enemy advances, we retreat; the enemy camps, we harass; the enemy tires, we attack; the enemy retreats, we pursue ”
4. Protesting the War
The Vietnam War sparked significant protest movements in both the US and Australia during the 1960s-70s. Both countries utilised conscription (the draft in the US, National Service in Australia), which fueled opposition. Anti-war movements in both nations incorporated civil disobedience, draft resistance, and public demonstrations.
In the US, demonstrations began on college campuses and grew into a nationwide movement encompassing diverse groups. The 1969 Moratorium mobilised millions, while the Kent State shootings in 1970 further inflamed opposition.
Australia had similar resistance to the conflict. The Save Our Sons movement, comprised primarily of mothers of conscripts, gained prominence. As did the 1970 Moratorium marches that drew hundreds of thousands across Australian cities.
The protests fundamentally changed political landscapes in both countries, contributing to policy reversals, leadership changes, and leaving lasting impacts on how citizens engage with foreign policy decisions.
"The anti-war movement in Australia fundamentally reshaped our national identity and political landscape. It marked the first time Australians en masse questioned their government's foreign policy decisions and military commitments. The moratorium campaigns not only helped end Australia's involvement in Vietnam but also catalyzed a broader cultural shift toward greater political activism, independence from great powers, and skepticism of military solutions. This period transformed how Australians viewed their place in the world and their relationship with authority."
— Dr. Michelle Arrow, Professor of Modern History at Macquarie University
To do: questions
Use 5 anti war posters as sources to describe the protest movement against the war.
Discuss: How did the protest movement influence the conduct of the war and the peace negotiations?
Protest songs providing a window into the mood of the anti-Vietnam War movement. According to James Lindsay, anti-war songs provide a window into the mood of the 1960s. It was one of anger, alienation, and defiance.
To do: Prepare a MULTIMEDIA presentation examining how music impacted the protests against the Vietnam War.
Choose a Vietnam era protest song that appeals to you the most.
Explain why you have chosen the song.
What is your chosen song about?
What contribution did protest music make to the anti-Vietnam War peace movement?
5. War Room
Intelligence Briefing:
You are intelligence officers in the Australian military.
Your task is to brief the generals in the war room about the status of the conflict in Vietnam as the two sides move toward a negotiated peace.
Your briefing will inform Australia’s approach to the end of the war in Vietnam.
Briefing brief:
The success of American tactics?
Are the N. Vietnamese losing?
How are the peace movements in Western countries impacting the conduct of the war?
Extra: Is it in Australia’s long term interests to remain involved in the conflict?
6. Vietnam Peace Talks 1968 - 1975
Peace talks open, fighting continues
After the Tet Offensive, President Johnson faced increased antiwar sentiment and political pressure to end the conflict. In March 1968 he ordered an end to the bombing of North Vietnam. Peace talks were quickly deadlocked. The ground war intensified, with the conflict’s fiercest fighting.
In 1968, Richard M. Nixon, was elected, he and Kissinger his Secretary of State, recognised that the US could not win the war. They insisted on an “honourable” peace settlement that would give South Vietnam a reasonable chance for survival. A hasty withdrawal, they contended, would damage U.S. credibility internationally.
Nixon began to gradually withdraw U.S. ground troops in 1969, a program called Vietnamisation, that transferred control to South Vietnamese forces. The troop withdrawals were popular among the American public. The U.S. soldiers still in Vietnam, saw the withdrawals as an admission of the pointlessness of the war. Morale among the troops was already low. Major problems included drug abuse, desertion, and even violence against officers.
During this period, Nixon resumed the bombing of North Vietnam and expanded the secret bombing in Cambodia and Laos and authorised U.S. and South Vietnamese forces to operate in Cambodia. This added to American public opposition to the war and caused the peace talks to stagnate.
In 1972 the North mounted a large invasion of the South. But it failed.
The end of the war
After this defeat, the leaders of North Vietnam signalled a compromise. The two sides began to negotiate a peace treaty. Stalled talks led to extensive bombing of north Vietnamese cities.
The Paris Peace Accords were formally signed on the 27th of January 1973. U.S. troops left Vietnam by the end of March. The United States began cutting military and economic aid to the South.
The North Vietnamese launched a major invasion, they expected it to take two years. However, within two months, South Vietnam surrendered (April 30, 1975), as Northern troops entered Saigon.
Sources - Vietnam Peace Talks
10 Sources Analysis Answer Guide
Don’t forget: Quote often and begin your response with name of the author, not the Source number. Put the source number in brackets at the end of the quote/paraphrasing.
For example:
This is supported by Jones who states that 'History students would be more popular at parties if they used this method.' (Source 3)
More successful responses:
contain relevant evidence (quotes and observations) from sources when required.
Less successful responses
provide responses without reference to any evidence from the source
state that sources are limited without explaining why using evidence
do not assess the nature of sources clearly
do not explain how the nature and origin of the sources are a strength or limitation
do not include the source in the response.
Source 1. Vietnam Peace Talks. Alpha History
One significant problem was that the United States and North Vietnam approached peace talks with different objectives. For the Americans, the peace process was a way of extricating themselves from Vietnam, while avoiding the humiliation of defeat. For the North Vietnamese, whose ultimate goal was national reunification, peace talks were another military tactic, a device to obtain breathing space while denying and frustrating the enemy.
Questions
Using evidence from the source. Contrast the objectives of the USA and North Vietnam. (2)
Source 2. North Vietnamese Peace Proposal (excerpt). April 1965.
The internal affairs of South Vietnam must be settled by the South Vietnamese people themselves, in accordance with the program of the NLF, without any foreign interference.
The peaceful reunification of Vietnam is to be settled by the Vietnamese people in both zones, without any foreign interference.”
Questions
According to the source, what were the primary demands of the North Vietnamese? (2)
Source 3. Where the Domino fell. J.S Olson 2008
“Kissinger knew that the United States could not simply declare it a mistake and withdraw. Other US commitments in the world would then be brought into serious question. The US needed to get out of Vietnam with its credibility intact, something Nixon called ‘peace with honour’. The Paris peace talks, Kissinger was certain, would never achieve that goal. They were too public, too exposed to media scrutiny, and too politicised. The US needed to maintain pressure on North Vietnam”
Questions
What were Kissinger’s views on the value of the Paris Peace Talks? (2)
Source 5. The US bombing campaign 1968 - 1973
The US bombing campaigns were intended not only to attack and weaken the enemy, they were also to show north Vietnam that the USA would not be forced out of the war and would not abandon South Vietnam. Eventually, they had their effect – in January 1973 peace talks in Paris were resumed.
Questions
How does the information in Source 5 support the information in Source 3? (4)
With reference to all of the sources. Respond to the statement.
‘The US deliberately prolonged the war to avoid the humiliation of defeat’.
Source 4. Where it stops, nobody knows! 1972 The Washington Times
Nixon began to gradually withdraw U.S. ground troops in 1969, a program called Vietnamisation, that transferred control to South Vietnamese forces
Questions
How useful is a cartoon for an historian studying the Vietnam peace process? (4)
Source 4. Where it stops, nobody knows!’