Weimar 1918 - 1928
Background briefing: How to make a Nation - The Bismarck edition.
The German state was a fragmented collection of roughly 300 sovereign, independent states (kingdoms, duchies, principalities, free cities, etc.). The German states were bound together in a loose political entity known as the Holy Roman Empire, which dated to the era of Charlemagne in the 800s. By the late eighteenth century, the Holy Roman Empire was, as Voltaire remarked, “Neither holy, nor Roman, nor an Empire.”
After the Napoleonic Wars and the end of the Holy Roman Empire (1806), a rivalry developed between the Holy Roman Empire’s two largest (and strongest) states: the Kingdom of Austria, ruled by the Habsburgs, and the Kingdom of Prussia, ruled by the Hohenzollern.
Activity 1. Making a nation. Germany
How to make a modern nation state.
To do: questions
What was Bismarck’s goal in starting wars with Denmark, Austria and the French?
Bismarck was from Prussia. What was the status of Prussia in the power structure of Europe before unification.
Why was the Prussian victory over Austria such a shock to the rest of Europe?
How did Bismarck use the Ems telegram to provoke France and ensure the German states joined Prussia?
The French had defeated the Prussians in 1806 and 1815. How did the Prussians change this record, including laying siege to Paris, by 1871?
Extra
What was the significance of proclaiming the new country of Germany in occupied France.
1. Weimar. A new republic
The abdication of Emperor William II on November 9, 1918, marked the end of the German Empire. The SPD leader, Friedrich Ebert succeed him and advocated for the establishment of a true constitutional monarchy. However Germany was in political ferment and numerous groups were vying for power.
The Independent Socialists had declared a socialist republic in Bavaria while several communist groups were gaining strength in the countries cities. In November 1918 Scheidemann proclaimed the Weimar Republic from the balcony of the Reichstag without authorisation. Ebert, fearing that extremists would take charge of the country, accepted the fait accompli.
The Weimar Republic is named after the city of Weimar in Germany where the new democratic government first met in 1919. Weimar was a symbolic choice, as it was associated with German cultural heritage and the legacy of figures like Goethe and Schiller, representing a break from the militaristic past of the German Empire.
The Weimar Republic 1919 - 1933 (Germany gets Democracy)
The founding of the Weimar Republic in 1919 was fraught with challenges. Politically, it faced instability due to proportional representation, which led to fragmented parliaments and weak coalition governments. The Republic was also unpopular, blamed for Germany’s defeat in World War I and the harsh terms of the Treaty of Versailles, fueling the “stab-in-the-back” myth. Economically, Germany struggled with hyperinflation, massive unemployment, and crippling reparations, causing widespread hardship and resentment. Furthermore, the Republic lacked support from traditional elites, the military, and much of the public, undermining its legitimacy and stability from the outset.
To do.
Briefly summarise the challenges faced by the new Weimar Republic.
Sources: The Weimar republic
Sources Analysis Answer Guide
Don’t forget: Quote often and begin your response with name of the author, not the Source number. Put the source number in brackets at the end of the quote/paraphrasing.
For example:
This is supported by Jones who states that 'History students would be more popular at parties if they used this method.' (Source 3)
SACE Sources advice
More successful responses:
were well-structured
contained relevant evidence from sources when required.
Less successful responses
provided responses without reference to any evidence from the source
stated that sources are limited without reasoning
did not address the nature of sources clearly
did not explain how the nature and origin of the sources were a strength or limitation
did not include of the source in the response.
Source 1. The November Criminals. Wilde. ThoughtCo. 2019
The nickname "November Criminals" was given to the German politicians who negotiated and signed the armistice which ended World War I in November of 1918. The November Criminals were named so by German political opponents who thought the German army had enough strength to continue and that surrendering was a betrayal or crime, that the German army had not actually lost on the battlefront.
These political opponents were chiefly right-wingers, and the idea that the November Criminals had ‘stabbed Germany in the back’ by engineering surrender was partly created by the German military itself, who maneuvered the situation so the civilians would be blamed for conceding a war that the generals also felt couldn’t be won, but which they didn’t wish to admit.
Many of the November Criminals were a part of the early resistance members who eventually spearheaded the German Revolution of 1918 - 1919, several of which went on to serve as heads of the Weimar Republic w
Questions
Who were the November criminals? (1)
Why was the myth of the November criminals perpetuated in part by the German military? (2)
Source 2. Hindenburg (Commander of German Forces) supports the 'Stab in the Back' theory. January 1919
'That is the general trajectory of the tragic development of the war for Germany, after a series of brilliant, unsurpassed successes on many fronts, following an accomplishment by the army and the people for which no praise is high enough. This trajectory had to be established so that the military measures for which we are responsible could be correctly evaluated.'
'An English general said with justice: “The German army was stabbed in the back.” No guilt applies to the good core of the army. Its achievements are just as admirable as those of the officer corps. Where the guilt lies has clearly been demonstrated. If it needed more proof, then it would be found in the quoted statement of the English general and in the boundless astonishment of our enemies at their victory.'
Questions
What is the evidence that Hindenburg provides for the Stab in the Back theory? (2)
Source 4. Social Democratic Party politician Philipp Scheidemann read this proclamation of the German republic before a crowd on November 8th 1918:
“Workers and soldiers! The four war years were horrible, gruesome the sacrifices the people had to make in property and blood; the unfortunate war is over. The killing is over.
The consequences of the war, need and suffering, will burden us for many years. The defeat we strove so hard to avoid, under all circumstances, has come upon us. Our suggestions regarding an understanding were sabotaged, we personally were mocked and ignored. The enemies of the working class, the real, inner enemies who are responsible for Germany’s collapse, they have turned silent and invisible. They were the home warriors, which upheld their conquest demands until yesterday, as obstinate as they fought the struggle against any reform of the constitution and especially of the deplorable Prussian election system.
Questions
Who does Mr Scheidemann blame for the German defeat? (2)
How does the information in source 4 support source 2. (3)
Source 3. 'That’s you scoundrel! Remember this Germany!' Political Cartoon. Weimar Germany 1920
Questions
Who does the cartoons author blame for Germany's loss?
How does the information in source 3 support source 2. (3)
Source 5. The Spartacist Uprising 1919- Military history
Germany was in the middle of a post-war revolution, and two of the perceived paths forward were either social democracy or a council/soviet republic similar to the one which had been established by the Bolshevik Party in Russia. Following Scheidemann's declaration of a new German Republic, Karl Liebknecht declared the birth of the new state: the “Free Socialist Republic of Germany”. The Spartacist uprising was a critical event in the German Revolution and the early Weimar Republic. It was an attempt to seize control of Berlin and replace the transitional government with a radical socialist regime. The uprising was launched by the Spartakusbund, a group of radical socialists led by Liebknecht. It failed due to the intervention of the military and Freikorps paramilitary units, which mobilised to defend the government.
Questions
According to the source, what were the two possible paths for government in Germany? (2)
Why did the uprising fail?
Source 6. 15th January 1919: The Spartacist uprising (1.41 mins - 2.41 mins)
Questions
How does source 6 support source 5? (4)
Source 7. Ernst Troeltsch's, German philosopher and theologian, account of the birth of ‘German democracy’. (December 1918)
“Overnight we have become the most radical democracy in Europe, and are obliged as well to consider it the relatively moderate solution to the problem of our political life. On closer inspection, it did not happen overnight. Democracy is the natural consequence of modern population density, combined with the education of the population necessary to nurture it, with industrialisation, mobilisation, defence preparations, and politicisation. Democracy has been suppressed in Prussia since 1848 by the constitution and the military system, but it struggled constantly and powerfully for supremacy against both… It fell solely to the terrible world war to deliver democracy to victory. But this also which introduced a danger that the development will not stop at democracy because the “dictatorship of the proletariat” will assume the form of the terrorist domination by a minority.
Questions
Use evidence from the source to charecterise the emergence of democracy in Germany (3)
2. Weimar challenges
The Weimar Republic emerged from the confusion and chaos of Germany's loss in The Great War One. Famine was widespread. The Kaiser had abdicated and unrest had spilled on to the streets.
Many Germans hated the government for signing the armistice (Versailles) in November 1918 - they called the politicians the November criminals. The defeat in the war came as a huge surprise to the German people, and many ordinary German soldiers, which led to a theory that the brave German army had been ‘stabbed in the back’ by the politicians.
To do: Examine the challenges faced by the new republic in 3 parts
Part 1. Weimar challenges mind map
Create a mind map of the challenges faced by the new Republic.
Include the political. social and economic challenges
Part 2. Television debate script
Welcome to this week in Germany. Tonight we have Fredrich of the Freikorps and Wilhelmina of the new Weimar government to debate the formation of a new German government.
Topic: Is the new Weimar Republic a good idea?
Task: Write a script that outlines the debate between the two sides.
Use historical evidence and examples to support your script.
The stab in the back and the November criminals
Allied occupation of German lands
The economic costs of the Treaty of Versailles
Street violence and the militias.
The Spartacist uprising
Is Germany ready for democracy?
Part 3. Strategic briefing: What are the aims of the opposition groups.
The Communists (KPD)
The Spartacist League
The Freikorps
The National Socialists (NSDAP)
Paragraphs. Weimar political challenges
Essay topic: 'Right wing political violence was the main challenge in the early years of the Weimar Republic.'
Paragraph 1. The challenge of right wing political violence:
Use the sources to write a paragraph analysing the impact of right wing political violence in the early years of the Weimar republic.
Political challenges from the right sources
Paragraph 2. The challenge of left wing political violence:
Use the sources to write a paragraph analysing the impact of left wing political violence in the early years of the Weimar republic.
Political challenges from the left sources
Paragraph 3. Counterfactual: Other challenges in the early years of the Weimar republic.
Use your own research to write a paragraph on the other challenges faced by the new republic.
3. The Great Inflation
The new Weimar Republic faced one of the greatest economic challenges: hyperinflation. The Treaty of Versailles had left the republic without the means to produce revenue-generating coal and iron ore. War debts and reparations left the German government unable to pay their debts.
In response to Germany’s claim that it couldn’t afford to pay after a missed payment, French and Belgian troops occupied Germany’s main industrial area, the Ruhr, to take their reparations by force. The Weimar government ordered German workers in the Ruhr region to passively resist the occupation and go on strike, shutting down the coal mines and iron factories. As a result, Germany’s economy quickly deteriorated .
In response the Weimar government simply printed more money to pay for the wages of the striking workers and other government expenses. However this further devalued the German Mark, inflation increased at an astounding rate. The cost of living rose rapidly and many people lost everything they had. An underground bartering economy was established to help people meet their basic needs.
According to Paper Money, “the law-abiding country crumbled into petty thievery.”
To do: questions
What is hyperinflation?
How does hyperinflation impact a society? Are there winners and losers?
Extra: Could the Weimar government have avoided hyperinflation with a different policy? What were the challenges to these alternative paths?
Background briefing: Hyperinflation
Hyperinflation is a term to describe rapid, excessive, and out-of-control price increases in an economy. While inflation measures the pace of rising prices for goods and services, hyperinflation is rapidly rising inflation, typically measuring more than 50% per month.
Although hyperinflation is a rare event for developed economies, it has occurred many times throughout history in countries including China, Germany, Russia, Hungary, and Georgia.
In Weimar Germany the Hyperinflation resulted from a loss of general confidence in the economy and the currency.
Sources: Weimar hyperinflation
Source 1. Klaus Mann, German writer and dissident (1923)
“The bloody uproar of the war is over: let’s enjoy the carnival of the inflation. It’s loads of fun and paper, printed paper, flimsy stuff – do they still call it money? For five billion of it, you can get one dollar. What a joke! The Yankees are coming but as peaceful tourists this time. They purchase a Rembrandt for a sandwich and our souls for a glass of whisky. Krupp and Stinnes (Large German Companies) get rid of their debts, while we get rid of our savings. The profiteers dance in the palace hotels.”
Questions
According to Source 1. what will the Yankee tourists do in Germany?
What two conclusions can be drawn from Source 1 about life in Germany as a result of the hyperinflation?
Source 2. Eugeni Xammar, Spanish journalist in Berlin, (February 1923)
“The price of tram rides and beef, theatre tickets and school, newspapers and haircuts, sugar and bacon, is going up every week. As a result, no one knows how long their money will last and people are living in constant fear, thinking of nothing but eating and drinking, buying and selling. There is only one topic on everyone’s lips in Berlin: the dollar, the mark and prices.”
Questions
How useful is a newspaper article, such as Source 2, for historians researching an event such as the Weimar inflation?
To what extent does the information in Source 2 support the information in Source 1.
Source 3. George Grosz - German artist, on the hyperinflation of 1923
“Lingering at shop windows was a luxury because shopping had to be done immediately. Even an additional minute could mean an increase in price. One had to buy quickly. A rabbit, for example, might cost two million marks more by the time it took you to walk into the store. A few million marks meant nothing, really. It was just that it meant more lugging. The packages of money needed to buy the smallest item had long since become too heavy for trouser pockets. They weighed many pounds… People had to start carting their money around in wagons and knapsacks.”
Questions
To what extent does the information in Source 3 support the information in Source 2?
Source 4. Adolf Hitler, 1923
“Believe me, our misery will increase. The scoundrel will get by. But the decent, solid businessman who doesn’t speculate will be utterly crushed. First, the little fellow on the bottom, but in the end the big fellow on top too. But the scoundrel and the swindler will remain, top and bottom. The reason? Because the state itself has become the biggest swindler and crook, a robbers’ state.”
Questions
Refer to all sources to assess the statement. The Weimar inflation had a negative impact on all elements of German society.
4. The Golden Years 1924 - 1929
The years between 1924 and 1929 have become known as the Golden Age of Weimar, marked by economic recovery, growing prosperity, better living conditions and cultural and artistic freedom. The ‘Golden Age’ was driven by rapid industrial growth in Germany, underpinned by large American loans, capital investment and the restoration of foreign trade. The new prosperity was underpinned by economic reforms initiated by Gustav Stresemann.
The Liberal cultural revival was charecterised by the Avant Garde and a new atmosphere of cultural and sexual freedom. The end of censorship was in contrast with the enforced conservatism preceding the hyperinflation. Increased prosperity and a stable currency allowed the Weimar government to introduce innovative social policies, such as housing projects and a modern welfare system.
The period saw increasing class and political divisions. The conservative rural and southern regions reacted to the liberalism and social dislocation of the urban centres. Conservative organisations campaigned for a return to simple country values and economic support for the countryside in opposition to the perceived decadence in the cities.
Task: Create a Weimar Time Capsule
use 5 sources to represent the Weimar Republic Golden Years for a time capsule to be opened in 100 years.
Your time capsule must include a brief description of each sources relevance
How do you tackle hyperinflation? With a plan.
The Dawes Plan, introduced in 1924, was a response to the hyperinflation and designed to restore confidence in the economy and help Germany manage its World War I reparations. The US loaned Germany the money to pay its debts and negotiated the restructuring of the terms of the debt repayments.
The US wanted to avoid the possibility of a new conflict in Europe.
The plan reorganised the Reichsbank under Allied supervision and stabilised the German currency with an international loan. It rescheduled the payment of repatriations and in addition, recommended the removal of French troops from the Ruhr.
The plan led to economic recovery and stability in Germany.